█ _ برتراند راسل 1708 حصريا كتاب ❞ An Outline of Philosophy (Routledge Classics) by Bertrand Russell ❝ عن جميع الحقوق محفوظة للمؤلف 2025 Russell: THE FAMED PHILOSOPHER PROVIDES A “SCIENTIFIC” BASIS FOR PHILOSOPHY Bertrand Arthur William (1872 1970) was an influential British philosopher, logician, mathematician, and political activist In 1950, he awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, recognition his many books [NOTE: page numbers below refer to a 317 paperback edition ] He begins this book (first edition, 1920) saying, “The definition ‘philosophy’ will vary… all that we can say begin with is there are certain problems… which do not… belong any special sciences These problems such as raise doubts concerning what commonly passes for knowledge… arises from unusually obstinate attempt arrive at real knowledge What ordinary life suffers three defects: it cocksure, vague, self contradictory The first step towards philosophy consists becoming aware these defects… order substitute amended kind shall be tentative, precise, consistent ” (Pg 1 2) He observes, “This something difficulty Watsonian theory language… I may one person, ‘I met Mr Jones train today,’ another ‘Joseph 9:35 morning ’ With exception words ‘in the’, two sentences have nothing verbally common, yet they relate same fact, use either indifferently when recall fact Thus my recollection certainly NOT definite verbal habit… If behaviorist … telling me VERBAL habit, driven instances admission must some other habit says this, abandoning region observable taking refuge hypothetical bodily movements invoked save But hardly better than ‘thoughts ’” 77) He notes, notion ‘place’ also quite vague Is London ‘place’? earth rotating going around sun moving relatively stars At best you could talk place given time; but then ambiguous time, unless confine yourself So evaporates 115) He points out, “We not, ‘observe’ here said observe; INFERRED observe, astronomy, dimensional pattern light, few bright surfaces measurable size seen through telescope (the planets)… OBSERVED facts There no logical impossibility about medieval doctrine spheres round earth, each planet modern doctrines simpler, not whit more accordance observed facts; our passion SIMPLE laws has made us adopt them 126) الفكر والفلسفة مجاناً PDF اونلاين ترتيب أمور معلومة للتأدي إلى مجهول ويُستخدم الدراسات المتعلقة بالعقل البشري ويشير قدرة العقل تصحيح الاستنتاجات بشأن ما هو حقيقي أو واقعي وبشأن كيفية حل المشكلات ويمكن تقسيم النقاش المتعلق بالفكر مجالين واسعي النطاق وفي هذين المجالين استمر استخدام المصطلحين "الفكر" و"الذكاء" كمصطلحين مرتبطين ببعضهما البعض الفلسفة (لغويا من اليونانية φιλοσοφία philosophia والتي تعني حرفيًا "حب الحكمة") هي دراسة الأسئلة العامة والأساسية الوجود والمعرفة والقيم والعقل والاستدلال واللغة غالبًا تطرح مثل هذه كمسائل لدراستها حلها ربما صاغ مصطلح "فيلسوف (محب الحكمة)" الفيلسوف وعالم الرياضيات فيثاغورس (570 495 قبل الميلاد) تشمل الأساليب الفلسفية الاستجواب والمناقشة النقدية والحجة المنطقية والعرض المنهجي وهذا ركن خاص بكتب مجانيه للتحميل